Elementary Spatial Pedagogy: On the Spatial Development of Kindergartens
Nurseries and kindergartens are, for most children, the first environments outside the family in which they spend significant amounts of time. Alongside growing into society and being together with other children and educators, essential steps in spatial perception and spatial experience also take place here. The spatial design of these environments constitutes an architectural experience that reveals, often unconsciously, how buildings function, how they can support certain actions, and also how they can restrict them. Their design therefore requires great attention and care, a perception that is only slowly beginning to gain traction. This attention to spatial design corresponds to the broader acknowledgment of early childhood as a fundamental phase for later development.
The Path to Kindergarten
For a long time, childhood was not seen as a distinct phase of life. Only with the humanism of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries did the importance of early childhood education begin to be addressed. A key early proponent was educator Johann Amos Comenius (1592–1670), who advocated for a child-centered perspective, although he did not yet classify childhood as a separate stage of life. This shift occurred during the Enlightenment, when education increasingly came to be understood as a public responsibility. Significant forerunners of early childhood pedagogy were Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) and Friedrich Wilhelm Fröbel (1782–1852). Both saw early childhood education as an institutional complement to the family. Pestalozzi in particular shaped kindergarten structures and architecture through his ideas on the “educational power of the living room,” [→ 1] which divided children into small, independent groups, a concept that emerged long before formal spatial programs were articulated. Around 1840, Fröbel first introduced the term “kindergarten,” in contrast to earlier designations such as custodial institution, play and waiting school, children’s asylum, or knitting school. These earlier terms signaled their primary intention: the quiet safekeeping of children, primarily from the working class, in which parents were now working outside the home due to industrialization. In contrast, Fröbel envisioned kindergarten as a paradise modeled on the Garden of Eden. Here, children were to be nurtured like flowers by “experienced, perceptive gardeners in harmony with nature,” cultivated as if in a garden bed, and allowed to freely fulfill their natural need for movement. [→ 2]
He invented building blocks for children, called “gifts of play,” which later served as foundational experiences of building for architects such as Le Corbusier, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Buckminster Fuller.
In the beginning, private benefactors and associations served as providers of early childhood education. Soon, however, religious institutions also began to take on the task. Recognizing the growing importance of the field, the kindergarten system in Austria was formally established in 1872. [→ 3]
The Spatial Design
In the early stages, little attention was paid to spatial requirements, particularly because childcare facilities were often housed in existing buildings. More detailed considerations of architectural requirements were formulated by Alois Fellner (director of the kindergarten teacher training institute in the Neubau district of Vienna at the time) in his extensive 1901 publication Der Kindergarten. Among other aspects, he addresses requirements for the building site, heating and ventilation, and lighting. For an activity room for 40 children, he defines the ideal dimensions as 8 meters long, 5.8 meters wide, and 4 meters high, [→ 4] plus any ancillary rooms and ample outdoor play space. This prototypical floor plan can still be seen in many kindergartens today, although the space allocated per child has fortunately increased.
A key pioneer in the spatial design of kindergartens was Maria Montessori (1870–1952). The design of “child-friendly” furnishings with low tables and chairs can be traced back to her. In 1907, she founded the first “Casa dei Bambini” in a working-class district of Rome. Personal connections brought her ideas to Austria, notably influencing the municipal kindergarten in the Waldmüllerpark in Vienna’s Favoriten district, which opened in 1925. Designed by Hugo Mayer of the City of Vienna Building Department and often referred to as a “House of Children,” it was the first kindergarten built by the Red Vienna city government. It was also Vienna’s first free-standing kindergarten in a park and its first Montessori kindergarten. Its castle-like design was an expression of city councilor Julius Tandler’s famous statement: “Those who build palaces for children tear down prison walls.” [→ 5]
The municipal kindergarten built shortly afterwards in the park at Rudolfsplatz, designed by Franz Schuster, represents an architectural counterpoint. Conceived in a restrained functionalist style, it was meant, in Schuster’s own words, to serve as a “simple, unpretentious framework for a small world for children.” [→ 6]
In Red Vienna, the construction of kindergartens was a frequent public building task, unlike schools, where a larger existing stock could be drawn upon. Many kindergartens were built in association with major municipal housing complexes. A publication from the early 1930s describes the spatial concept as follows: “Particular attention is given to spatial arrangement. The group rooms, with lightweight furniture adapted to the body size of toddlers and small children, feel like large nursery rooms. Every kindergarten has access to a garden, a terrace, or a playground for outdoor activities.” [→ 7] With year-round opening hours of up to 11 hours per day (from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m., and on Saturdays from 7 a.m. to 1 p.m.), the childcare provided at the time was significantly more extensive than it is today.
After the Second World War, numerous new buildings were constructed in rapid succession. Their spatial concepts were increasingly influenced by the “room division method,” developed primarily by Margarete Schörl and Margarete Schmaus in Austrian kindergartens, and which shaped kindergarten interiors throughout the German-speaking realm for many years to come. Group rooms were divided with furniture into different activity areas (including a building area, dollhouse, book nook, and home play area), creating a degree of uniformity that has given way to more flexible spatial arrangements today. This evolution clearly reflects the continued significance of the principle of space as the third teacher, particularly in kindergarten design.
Framework Conditions for Spatial Design
Because responsibility for the care and education of children under six in Austria is organized federally, the architectural requirements for nurseries and kindergartens also vary from one region to another. This can be seen, for example, in whether the required minimum area is defined per child or as total usable floor space. [→ 8] The respective state legal regulations specify minimum spatial dimensions as well as requirements for equipment, materials, and safety. The “Guidelines for the Design and Furnishing of Kindergartens in Upper Austria” go even further, [→ 9] defining “pedagogical requirements” and requiring that “all spaces must be continuously assessed in terms of their potential to serve as educational environments and equipped accordingly.” Principles for creating a comfortable spatial atmosphere are laid out, including having an aesthetic that is not overly saccharine, visual connections to the outdoors, and opportunities for children to store their personal items and display their work. Emphasis is also placed on avoiding visual overload and loud colors. Interpretations of what constitutes an appropriate “child-friendly” environment vary significantly, especially depending on pedagogical orientation. This becomes apparent, for instance, in the debate on multi-story kindergartens, which—although perfectly sensible in terms of land use and resource conservation— are often viewed critically due to their reduction of direct connection to open outdoor space and natural soil. Opinions also diverge regarding transparency versus enclosure in quiet areas and retreat zones, as well as regarding safety concerns—staircases, for example—and are often controversial and greatly discussed. There is, however, consensus that spaces for early childhood education must accommodate the diverse needs of children and educators by offering a range of stimuli, opportunities, and experiences, while maintaining a balance between consistency (for orientation and security) and adaptability (for experimentation and discovery).
The Collaboration of Architecture and Education
Overall, there is comparatively little research on spatial design and spatial use in early childhood education, particularly from an interdisciplinary perspective. Most architectural publications focus primarily on basic planning parameters, similar to regulatory frameworks, as well as showcasing selected new buildings or renovations. In pedagogical literature, the topic is addressed mainly from the perspective of developmental psychology. Questions of gender or the importance of public space—which, in both urban and rural contexts, is dominated by car traffic and therefore significantly restricts children’s everyday movement and exploration spaces—receive little attention.
While the topic of spatial design plays a greater role in the training [→ 10] of early childhood educators than in teacher training, strengthening the dialogue and cooperation between architecture and education would be essential for creating a better future. As in school building, collaboration between experts on early childhood education in the respective disciplines is still much too rare. Few architectural firms specialize in kindergarten design, and early childhood educators are often influenced by traditional spatial concepts or personal preferences and tendencies. Communication—when it takes place at all—is often not on equal footing. Bernhard Koch points to “gender” and “level of education” as possible influencing factors: “Kindergarten directors often find themselves facing male-dominated building committees whose experience with child-oriented perspectives may be limited. […] Furthermore, the secondary education level of kindergarten leadership in Austria may play a role, as they are confronted with academically trained architects who often have a strong professional standing that emerges in dialogue situations.” [→ 11] Encouragingly, recent developments in Austria show progress toward academic professionalization in early childhood education, [→ 12] in line with broader European trends. It is hoped that collaboration between architects and educators will become standard practice, particularly in new construction and renovation projects, which would help produce the best possible outcomes.
The spatial integration of kindergartens with primary and secondary schools, as seen in the Campus and Campus Plus models established particularly in Vienna, provides a basis for mixed-age collaboration and the networking of learning, leisure, and external educational partners. The design, high transparency, and flexibility allow for diverse learning configurations and quiet zone possibilities. However, as in all school buildings, the way these are used in everyday practice depends on the people involved, and often requires a willingness to break with established routines.
The inclusion of several pioneering kindergarten projects in this publication, and their contextualization within the broader field of educational architecture, aims to highlight their relevance to comprehensive education from early childhood onwards and to encourage further ambitious and thoughtful projects.